Efficient delivery of large cargos into cells on a porous substrate

ABSTRACT

In various embodiments, method and devices for delivering large cargos (e.g., organelles, chromosomes, bacteria, and the like) into cells are provided. In certain embodiments method of delivering a large cargo into eukaryotic cells, are provided that involve providing eukaryotic cells disposed on one side of a porous membrane; providing the cargo to be delivered in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber on the opposite side of the porous membrane; and applying pressure to the reservoir chamber sufficient to pass the cargo through pores comprising said porous membrane wherein said cargo passes through cell membranes and into the cells.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a U.S. 371 National Phase of PCT/US2015/022813, filed on Mar. 26, 2015, which claims benefit of and priority to U.S. Ser. No. 61/972,145, filed Mar. 28, 2014, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT

[Not Applicable]

BACKGROUND

Transferring cargo into mammalian cells over a wide range of 1 sizes, including proteins, DNA, RNA, chromosomes, nuclei, and inanimate particles, such as quantum dots, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) particles, and microbeads, is highly desirable in many fields of biology. Delivery methods, such as endocytosis, can entrap cargo in an endosome, where the low pH microenvironment and lytic enzymes often lead to cargo degradation (Luo and Saltzman (2000) Nat. Biotechnol. 18: 33-37). Viral and chemical delivery methods package the cargo inside a virus or form chemical complexes that enhance uptake (Naldini et al. (1996) Science, 272: 263-267; Feigner et al. (1987) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 84: 7413-7417). However, toxicity, cell-type specific uptake, and more importantly limited cargo packing capacity impose a significant constraint on cargo size and transferable cell types (Luo and Saltzman, supra.).

Physical transfer methods include electroporation (Chu, et al. (1987) Nucleic Acids Res. 15: 1311-1326) and sonoporation (Mitragotri (2005) Nat. Rev. Drug Discovery, 4: 255-260), which produce randomly distributed nanoscale pores, and optoporation (Tirlapur and Konig (2002) Nature, 418: 290-291; Vogel, et al. (2005) Appl. Phys. B: Laser Opt., 81: 1015-1047; Clark et al. (2006) J. Biomed. Opt., 11: 014034), which generates pores on the cell membrane at the laser focal point. Through these pores, small cargo is delivered into cells by thermal diffusion or by an electric field. Delivery of large cargo with these methods has low efficiency due to the slow speed of cargo diffusion and decreasing cell viability with increasing pore size (Stevenson et al. (2006) Opt. Express, 14: 7125-7133). Microcapillary injection (King (2004) Methods in Molecular Biology 245: Gene Delivery to Mammalian Cells 1; Humana Press Inc.: Totowa, N.J.) uses a sharp lass tip to mechanically penetrate a cell membrane for delivery. However, mechanical trauma from membrane penetration limits the typical pipet tip to 0.5 um in diameter in order to maintain cell viability (Han et al. (2998) J. Nanomed. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med., 4: 215-225).

Cargo larger than the pipet tip cannot be injected due to pipet clogging and cargo shearing. Electro-injection, which combines electroporation with microcapillary injection, has demonstrated small molecule delivery, such as RNA and plasmid DNA, into live cells (Boudes et al. (208) J. Neurosci. Meth., 170: 204-211; Kitamura et al. (2008) Nat. Meth., 5: 61-67) and bacteria delivery into artificial lipid vesicles (Hurtig and Orwar (2008) Soft Matter, 4: 1515-1520) by weakening the contacting cell membrane with an electric field, followed by gentle mechanical penetration into the cell. Alternatively, a simple lipid assisted microinjection (SLAM) technique (Laffafian and Hallett (1998) Biophys. J., 75: 2558-2563) incorporates synthetic lipid molecules at the tip of a glass microcapillary. Contact of the SLAM micropipette with a cell membrane allowed the lipid molecules to fuse with the cell membrane to form a continuous and temporary pathway for cargo delivery. This method avoids the zigzag stabbing motion of the micropipette tip through the cell membrane. However, the lipophilic interactions with cargo and cell membrane can produce unwanted biological effects in the cell as well as with the delivery cargo, limiting this method to specific cell types and cargo contents.

SUMMARY

In various aspects, the invention(s) contemplated herein may include, but need not be limited to, any one or more of the following embodiments:

EMBODIMENT 1

A method of delivering a large cargo into eukaryotic cells, said method including: providing said cells disposed on one side of a porous membrane; providing said cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber on the opposite side of said porous membrane; and applying pressure to said reservoir chamber sufficient to pass said cargo through pores including said porous membrane wherein said cargo passes through cell membrane and into said cells.

EMBODIMENT 2

The method of embodiment 1, wherein said reservoir chamber ranges in volume from about 10 μL up to about 500 μL, or from about 40 μL to about 500 μL, or from about 50 μL to about 400 μL, or from about 60 μL to about 300 μL, or from about 704 to about 200 μL, or from about 80 μL to about 150 μL, or from about 10 μL up to about 1 mL, or from about 10 μL up to about 500 μL, or from about 10 μL up to about 100 μL.

EMBODIMENT 3

The method of embodiment 2, wherein said reservoir chamber has a volume of about 100 μL.

EMBODIMENT 4

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-3, wherein said porous membrane ranges in thickness from about 5 μm to about 30 μm, or from about 5 μm to about 20 μm, or from about 5 μm to about 15 μm.

EMBODIMENT 5

The method of embodiment 4, wherein said porous membrane has a thickness of about 10 μm.

EMBODIMENT 6

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-5, wherein the average or median pore size of said porous membrane ranges from about 100 nm up to about 20 μm or up to about 20 μm, or from about 500 nm up to about 8 μm, or from about 1 μm up to about 5 μm.

EMBODIMENT 7

The method of embodiment 6, wherein the median or average pore size in said porous membrane is about 1 μm.

EMBODIMENT 8

The method of embodiment 6, wherein the median or average pore size in said porous membrane is about 3 μm.

EMBODIMENT 9

The method of embodiment 6, wherein the median or average pore size in said porous membrane is about 5 μm.

EMBODIMENT 10

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-9, wherein said porous membrane includes about 1×10⁵ pores/cm² up to about 1×10⁷ pores/cm², or about 5×10⁵ pores/cm² up to about 5×10⁶, or about 1×10⁵ pores/cm² up to about 1×10⁷ pores/cm².

EMBODIMENT 11

The method of embodiment 10, wherein said porous membrane includes about a 1 μm diameter average pore size at about 1.6×10⁶ pores/cm².

EMBODIMENT 12

The method of embodiment 10, wherein said porous membrane includes about a 3 μm diameter average pore size at about 8×10⁵ pores/cm².

EMBODIMENT 13

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-12, wherein said membrane includes a polymer membrane.

EMBODIMENT 14

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-12, wherein said membrane includes a material selected from the group consisting of a nylon membrane, a nylon mesh, a filer membrane, a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane, an expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) membrane, a polyester membrane, a polyetheretherketone (PEEK) membrane, an expaneded polyetheretherketone (ePEEK) membrane, aa polyethylene (PE) membrane, a polypropylene (PP) membrane, a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane, an ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA) membrane, a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) membrane, a polyethersulfone (PES) membrane, a polycarbonate membrane, and a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) membrane.

EMBODIMENT 15

The method of embodiment 14, wherein said membrane includes a polyester membrane, a polycarbonate membrane, or a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) membrane.

EMBODIMENT 16

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-15, wherein said applying pressure produces a deflection of said porous membrane.

EMBODIMENT 17

The method of embodiment 16, wherein said deflection ranges from about 20 μm, or from about 50 μm, or from about 100 μm, or from about 500 μm up to about to about 1 cm, or up to about 500 mm, or up to about 300 mm, or up to about 100 mm.

EMBODIMENT 18

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-17, wherein said applying pressure includes applying a transient pressure.

EMBODIMENT 19

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-18, wherein said applying pressure includes applying pressure for about 1 msec up to about 1 minute or from about 100 msec up to about 1 minute, or from about 1 sec up to about 1 min.

EMBODIMENT 20

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-19, wherein said applying pressure includes applying pressure through a port into said reservoir chamber.

EMBODIMENT 21

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-19, wherein said applying pressure includes deflecting a wall of said reservoir chamber when said chamber is filled and closed.

EMBODIMENT 22

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-19, wherein said applying pressure includes injecting a solution through a wall of said reservoir chamber.

EMBODIMENT 23

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-22, wherein said providing said cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber includes introducing said solution through a port into said reservoir chamber.

EMBODIMENT 24

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-22, wherein said providing said cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber includes pipetting the cargo solution into the reservoir.

EMBODIMENT 25

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-22, wherein said providing said cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber includes loading said reservoir chamber before placing said porous membrane on or in said chamber.

EMBODIMENT 26

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-22, wherein said providing said cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber includes injecting said solution through a needle that penetrates a wall of said reservoir chamber.

EMBODIMENT 27

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-22, wherein said providing said cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber includes passing said solution through said membrane to load said reservoir chamber.

EMBODIMENT 28

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-27, wherein said cargo includes one or moieties selected from the group consisting of a natural chromosome or chromosome fragment, a synthetic chromosome, a bacterium, a synthetic particle, an intracellular fungus, an intracellular protozoan, DNA and/or RNA packaged in a liposome (e.g., lipofectamine), and an organelle.

EMBODIMENT 29

The method of embodiment 28, wherein said cargo includes a cell nucleus.

EMBODIMENT 30

The method of embodiment 28, wherein said cargo includes a mitochondria.

EMBODIMENT 31

The method of embodiment 28, wherein said cargo includes a chromosome or chromosome fragment.

EMBODIMENT 32

The method of embodiment 28, wherein said cargo includes an artificial chromosome.

EMBODIMENT 33

The method of embodiment 28, wherein said cargo includes a bacterium.

EMBODIMENT 34

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-33, wherein said cells are selected from the group consisting of vertebrate cells, fungal cells, and yeast cells.

EMBODIMENT 35

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-33, wherein said cells are selected from the group consisting of mammalian cells, insect cells, and invertebrate cells.

EMBODIMENT 36

The method of embodiment 35, wherein said cells comprise mammalian cells.

EMBODIMENT 37

The method of embodiment 35, wherein said cells comprise human cells.

EMBODIMENT 38

The method of embodiment 35, wherein said cells comprise non-human mammalian cells.

EMBODIMENT 39

The method according to any one of embodiments 36-38, wherein said cells comprise lymphocytes, or stem cells.

EMBODIMENT 40

The method of embodiment 39, wherein said cells comprise stem cells selected from the group consisting of adult stem cells, embryonic stem cells, cord blood stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells.

EMBODIMENT 41

The method according to any one of embodiments 36-38, wherein said cells comprise differentiated somatic cells.

EMBODIMENT 42

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-33, wherein said cells comprise cells from a cell line.

EMBODIMENT 43

The method of embodiment 42, wherein said cells comprise cells from a cell line listed in Table 1.

EMBODIMENT 44

The method of embodiment 42, wherein said cells comprise cells from a cell line selected from the group consisting of HeLa, National Cancer Institute's 60 cancer cell lines (NCI60), ESTDAB database, DU145 (prostate cancer), Lncap (prostate cancer), MCF-7 (breast cancer), MDA-MB-438 (breast cancer), PC3 (prostate cancer), T47D (breast cancer), THP-1 (acute myeloid leukemia), U87 (glioblastoma), SHSYSY Human neuroblastoma cells, cloned from a myeloma, and Saos-2 cells (bone cancer).

EMBODIMENT 45

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-44, wherein said cells are cultured on said porous membrane.

EMBODIMENT 46

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-44, wherein said cells are cultured as an adherent layer on said porous membrane.

EMBODIMENT 47

The method according to any one of embodiments 45-46, wherein said cells are cultured to confluence on said porous membrane.

EMBODIMENT 48

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-47, wherein said porous membrane does not bear a metallic film or metallic nanoparticles.

EMBODIMENT 49

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-48, wherein said method does not involve heating a surface of said membrane.

EMBODIMENT 50

The method according to any one of embodiments 1-48, wherein said method does not involve heating a surface of said membrane with a laser.

EMBODIMENT 51

A device for delivering a large cargo into eukaryotic cells, said device including: a porous membrane; and a reservoir chamber on one side of said porous membrane, where the volume of said reservoir chamber is less than about 500 μL.

EMBODIMENT 52

The device of embodiment 51, wherein said reservoir chamber ranges in volume from about 40 μL to about 500 μL, or from about 50 μL to about 400 μL, or from about 60 μL to about 300 μL, or from about 704 to about 200 μL, or from about 80 μL to about 150 μL, or from about 10 μL up to about 100 μL.

EMBODIMENT 53

The device of embodiment 2, wherein said reservoir chamber has a volume of about 100 μL.

EMBODIMENT 54

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-53, wherein said porous membrane ranges in thickness from about 5 μm to about 30 μm, or from about 5 μm to about 20 μm, or from about 5 μm to about 15 μm.

EMBODIMENT 55

The device of embodiment 54, wherein said porous membrane has a thickness of about 10 μm.

EMBODIMENT 56

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-55, wherein the average or median pore size of said porous membrane ranges from about 100 nm up to about 20 μm or up to about 20 μm, or from about 500 nm up to about 8 μm, or from about 1 μm up to about 5 μm.

EMBODIMENT 57

The device of embodiment 56, wherein the median or average pore size in said porous membrane is about 1 μm.

EMBODIMENT 58

The device of embodiment 56, wherein the median or average pore size in said porous membrane is about 3 μm.

EMBODIMENT 59

The device of embodiment 56, wherein the median or average pore size in said porous membrane is about 5 μm.

EMBODIMENT 60

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-59, wherein said porous membrane includes about 1×10⁵ pores/cm² up to about 1×10⁷ pores/cm², or about 5×10⁵ pores/cm² up to about 5×10⁶, or about 1×10⁵ pores/cm² up to about 1×10⁷ pores/cm².

EMBODIMENT 61

The device of embodiment 60, wherein said porous membrane includes about a 1 μm diameter average pore size at about 1.6×10⁶ pores/cm².

EMBODIMENT 62

The device of embodiment 60, wherein said porous membrane includes about a 3 μm diameter average pore size at about 8×10⁵ pores/cm².

EMBODIMENT 63

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-62, wherein said membrane includes a polymer membrane.

EMBODIMENT 64

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-62, wherein said membrane includes a material selected from the group consisting of a nylon membrane, a nylon mesh, a filer membrane, a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane, an expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) membrane, polyetheretherketone (PEEK) membrane, expaneded polyetheretherketone (ePEEK) membrane, polyethylene (PE) membrane, polypropylene (PP) membrane, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane, ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA) membrane, thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) membrane, and a polyethersulfone (PES) membrane.

EMBODIMENT 65

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-62, wherein said membrane includes a polyester membrane, a polycarbonate membrane, or a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) membrane.

EMBODIMENT 66

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-65, wherein said reservoir chamber is in fluid communication with a port or channel configured to introduce a solution into said chamber.

EMBODIMENT 67

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-65, wherein said reservoir chamber closed and/or sealed (e.g., flow from the reservoir can only occur through the porous membrane).

EMBODIMENT 68

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-65, wherein reservoir chamber contains a solution including a cargo to be delivered into said eukaryotic cells.

EMBODIMENT 69

The device of embodiment 68, wherein said cargo includes one or moieties selected from the group consisting of a natural chromosome or chromosome fragment, a synthetic chromosome, a bacterium, a synthetic particle, an intracellular fungus, an intracellular protozoan, DNA and/or RNA packaged in a liposome or a lipid particle, and an organelle.

EMBODIMENT 70

The device of embodiment 69, wherein said cargo includes a cell nucleus.

EMBODIMENT 71

The device of embodiment 69, wherein said cargo includes a mitochondria.

EMBODIMENT 72

The device of embodiment 69, wherein said cargo includes a chromosome or chromosome fragment.

EMBODIMENT 73

The device of embodiment 69, wherein said cargo includes an artificial chromosome.

EMBODIMENT 74

The device of embodiment 69, wherein said cargo includes a bacterium.

EMBODIMENT 75

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-74, wherein eukaryotic cells are disposed on the surface of said porous membrane that is opposite the side juxtaposed to said reservoir chamber.

EMBODIMENT 76

The device of embodiment 74, wherein said cells are selected from the group consisting of mammalian cells, insect cells, and invertebrate cells.

EMBODIMENT 77

The device of embodiment 76, wherein said cells comprise mammalian cells.

EMBODIMENT 78

The device of embodiment 76, wherein said cells comprise human cells.

EMBODIMENT 79

The device of embodiment 76, wherein said cells comprise non-human mammalian cells.

EMBODIMENT 80

The device according to any one of embodiments 77-79, wherein said cells comprise lymphocytes, or stem cells.

EMBODIMENT 81

The device of embodiment 80, wherein said cells comprise stem cells selected from the group consisting of adult stem cells, embryonic stem cells, cord blood stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells.

EMBODIMENT 82

The device according to any one of embodiments 77-79, wherein said cells comprise differentiated somatic cells.

EMBODIMENT 83

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-74, wherein said cells comprise cells from a cell line.

EMBODIMENT 84

The device of embodiment 83, wherein said cells comprise cells from a cell line listed in Table 1.

EMBODIMENT 85

The device of embodiment 83, wherein said cells comprise cells from a cell line selected from the group consisting of HeLa, National Cancer Institute's 60 cancer cell lines (NCI60), ESTDAB database, DU145 (prostate cancer), Lncap (prostate cancer), MCF-7 (breast cancer), MDA-MB-438 (breast cancer), PC3 (prostate cancer), T47D (breast cancer), THP-1 (acute myeloid leukemia), U87 (glioblastoma), SHSYSY Human neuroblastoma cells, cloned from a myeloma, and Saos-2 cells (bone cancer).

EMBODIMENT 86

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-85, wherein said cells are cultured on said porous membrane.

EMBODIMENT 87

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-85, wherein said cells are cultured as an adherent layer on said porous membrane.

EMBODIMENT 88

The device according to any one of embodiments 86-87, wherein said cells are cultured to confluence on said porous membrane.

EMBODIMENT 89

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-88, wherein said porous membrane does not bear a metallic film or metallic nanoparticles.

EMBODIMENT 90

The device according to any one of embodiments 51-89, wherein said method does not involve heating a surface of said membrane.

EMBODIMENT 91

A system for delivering large cargoes into eukaryotic cells, said system including: a first device according to any one of embodiments 51-90; and a second device according to any one of embodiments 51-90; wherein said first device and said second device comprise ports and/or channels that are in fluid communication with the reservoir chambers including said first device and said second device and said ports and/or channels are in fluid communication with each other; or wherein said first device and said second device comprise ports and/or channels that are in fluid communication with the reservoir chambers including said first device and said second device and said ports and/or channels are not in fluid communication with each other.

EMBODIMENT 92

The system of embodiment 91, wherein said first device and said second device comprise ports and/or channels that are in fluid communication with the reservoir chambers including said first device and said second device and said ports and/or channels are in fluid communication with each other.

EMBODIMENT 93

The system of embodiment 91, wherein said first device and said second device comprise ports and/or channels that are in fluid communication with the reservoir chambers including said first device and said second device and said ports and/or channels are not in fluid communication with each other.

EMBODIMENT 94

The system of embodiment 93, wherein cargo present in the reservoir chamber of said first device is different than cargo present in the reservoir chamber of said second device.

EMBODIMENT 95

The system according to any one of embodiments 91-94, wherein eukaryotic cells present in said first device are the same type of eukaryotic cells in said second device.

EMBODIMENT 96

The system according to any one of embodiments 91-94, wherein eukaryotic cells present in said first device are different than the eukaryotic cells in said second device.

EMBODIMENT 97

The system according to any one of embodiments 91-96, wherein said system includes a third device according to any one of embodiments 51-90; and said first device and said third device comprise ports and/or channels that are in fluid communication with the reservoir chambers including said first device and said third device and said ports and/or channels are in fluid communication with each other; or wherein said first device and said third device comprise ports and/or channels that are in fluid communication with the reservoir chambers including said first device and said third device and said ports and/or channels are not in fluid communication with each other.

Definitions

The term “cargo” as used herein with respect to delivery into a cell refers to any moiety that it is desired to deliver into a cell. Illustrative cargoes include, but are not limited to organelles, whole chromosomes or bacteria, large nucleic acid or protein constructs, synthetic particles, and the like.

The term “large cargo” refers to cargo ranging in size from about 100 nm, or from about 500 nm, or from about 800 nm, or from about 1 μm, or from about 3 μm, or from about 5 μm up to about 20 μm, or up to about 15 μm, or up to about 10 μm (in length and/or width and/or in diameter). In certain embodiments a large cargo ranges in size from about 100 nm (e.g., DNA and/or RNA in a lipid or liposomal complex) up to about 10 μm (e.g., chromosome, nucleus, etc.).

The terms “sealed” or “closed” when used with respect to a sealed and/or closed reservoir chamber indicates that flow out of the reservoir can only occur, or occurs predominantly, through the porous membrane.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 show a schematic illustrating one embodiment of the delivery process.

FIGS. 2A and 2B show schematic illustrations of various non-limiting embodiments of a transfection system as described herein.

FIG. 3 shows recipient 143BTK rho(0) cells on the porous membrane after mitochondria delivery. Delivered DsRed labeled mitochondria can be observed inside cells and inside membrane pores.

FIG. 4 shows successfully transformed 143BTK rho(0) containing delivered mtDNA formed proliferation centers (left) compared to massive death in rho(0) cells without mtDNA (right) after culturing in restrictive media for 2 weeks.

FIG. 5 shows mitochondria DNA sequence that confirmed that successfully transformed recipient 143BTK rho(0) cells contains mtDNA identical to that of the mitochondria donor cell line MDAMB453 and different from its parental cell line 143BTK. 143BTK (SEQ ID NO:1), 143BTK rho(0) (SEQ ID NO:2), MDAMB453 (SEQ ID NO:3).

FIG. 6 shows that bacteria delivery efficiency of 84% was obtained using an approach described herein. Nine hours post-delivery, HeLa cells were stained for nucleus (blue) and plasma membrane (red). Delivered GFP bacteria (green) replicated inside the cell cytosol.

FIGS. 7A and 7B schematically illustrate a plurality of transfection devices integrated into a transfection system. In certain embodiments the transfection devices provide common loading ports/channels for all or for a subset of different transfection devices comprising the system (FIG. 7A) and/or a common cargo loading channel/port (FIG. 7B) for all or for a subset of different transfection devices comprising the system.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In various embodiments improved methods and devices for delivering cargos, especially “large” cargos into cells are provided herein. The methods and devices described herein transfer large cargos including, but not limited to, isolated mitochondria and bacteria into mammalian cells with unprecedented throughput and ease. Simultaneous delivery into 10⁵ cells within seconds has been demonstrated and cell viability (>90%) has been observed.

One illustrative, but non-limiting embodiment of the delivery method is depicted in FIG. 1. As shown therein, recipient cells (e.g., eukaryotic cells) are placed on or cultured on a porous membrane (e.g., a 10 μm thick polymer membrane) with through-membrane pores. The cargo that is to be transfected into the recipient cells is placed in a solution and loaded into a reservoir chamber on the opposite side of the porous membrane. Pressure is applied to the bottom reservoir chamber to pump the cargo suspension through the membrane pores towards the recipient cells. In certain embodiments the polymer membrane is deformed slightly due to the pressure driven flow. Transfected cells can be observed shortly after the pressurization.

Transfection Devices.

In certain embodiments transfection devices are provided for use in the methods described herein. In certain illustrative, but non-limiting embodiments, the transfection device comprises a porous membrane as described herein, disposed over a reservoir chamber (see, e.g., FIG. 2A).

As illustrated in FIG. 2A, the reservoir chamber is configured to contain the cargo that is to be transfected into the recipient cells. The porous membrane is also chosen to support the recipient cells, and in certain embodiments, to permit culturing of those cells as an adherent layer on the porous membrane.

In various embodiments, the cells need not be cultured as an adherent layer. For example, in certain embodiments, the cells are simply adsorbed to the membrane, e.g., by direct deposition and/or by centrifugation. In certain embodiments, the cells are attached to the membrane using various attachment molecules (e.g., integrins, cadherins, selectins, and various synthetic linkers (e.g., heterobifunctional or homobifunctional peptide linkers). In certain embodiments, the cells are “attached” to the membrane by a gel matrix (e.g., gelatin, HYDROMATRIX®, MAXGEL®, collagen gel, hydrogels, and the like).

In certain embodiments the reservoir chamber can be provided with a port and/or channel for introduction of the cargo solution and/or for pressurization of the chamber during a transfection although as explained below, such a port or channel is not required.

In various illustrative, but non-limiting embodiments, the reservoir chamber ranges in volume from about 10 μL, or from about 20 μL, or from about 30 μL, or from about 40 μL, or from about 50 μL, or from about 60 μL, or from about 70 μL, or from about 80 μL up to about 500 μL, or up to about 400 μL, or up to about 300 μL, or up to about 200 μL, or up to about 100 μL.

In various embodiments the porous membrane and/or the reservoir chamber are fabricated from essentially any material that is compatible with the eukaryotic cells and cargo that is to be delivered into the cells. Suitable materials include, but are not limited to ceramics, glass, and plastics. In certain embodiments the reservoir chamber is fabricated from a rigid/stiff plastic (e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene, etc.), while in other embodiments, the reservoir chamber is fabricated from a flexible polymer (e.g., PDMS or other polymers).

As indicated above, the transfection methods utilize a porous membrane, and in certain embodiments a flexible porous membrane. Porous membranes are available in a wide variety of materials (e.g., nylon or nylon mesh, filter membranes, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE), polyetheretherketone (PEEK), expaneded polyetheretherketone (ePEEK), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA), thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), polyethersulfone (PES), and the like). In certain embodiments, porous rigid materials (e.g., porous ceramic, porous glasses, etc.) are also contemplated. Porous membranes are well known to those of skill in the art and are commercially available in a variety of pore sizes from a number of sources (see, e.g., Porex Corp. Fairburn Ga., and the like).

In certain embodiments the porous membrane ranges in thickness from about 3 μm, or from about 5 μm, or from about 7 μm up to about 30 μm, or up to about 25 μm, or up to about 20 μm, or up to about 15 μm, or up to about 10 μm. In certain embodiments the porous membrane is about 10 μm in thickness.

In certain embodiments the average or median pore size of the porous membrane ranges from about 50 nm, or from about 100 nm, or from about 200 nm, or from about 300 nm, or from about 400 nm, or from about 500 nm, or from about 600 nm, or from about 700 nm, or from about 800 nm, or from about 900 nm, or from about 1 μm up to about 30 μm, or up to about 20 μm, or up to about 15 μm, or up to about 10 μm, or up to about 8 μm, or up to about 5 μm. In certain embodiments the median or average pore size in said porous membrane is about 1 μm or about 3 μm, or about 5 μm.

In typical embodiments, the pore density of the membrane is sufficiently high so that on average at least have of the cells thereon are located over at least one pore, or over at least two pores, or over at least 3 pores, or over at least 4 pores, or over at least 5 pores, or over at least 10 pores. In certain embodiments the porous membrane comprises about 1×10⁵ pores/cm² up to about 1×10⁷ pores/cm², or about 5×10⁵ pores/cm² up to about 5×10⁶, or about 1×10⁵ pores/cm² up to about 1×10⁷ pores/cm². In certain embodiments the porous membrane comprises about a 1 μm diameter average pore size at about 1.6×10⁶ pores/cm², or about a 3 μm diameter average pore size at about 8×10⁵ pores/cm².

There are a number of formats, materials, and size scales that may be used in the construction of the transfection devices described herein and in microfluidic devices that may incorporate them. In some embodiments the transfection devices and, when present, connecting fluid channels and/or ports are comprised of PDMS (or other polymers), and fabricated using soft lithography, while the porous membrane is typically purchased from a vendor of such membranes.

PDMS is an attractive material for fabrication of the devices described herein for a variety of reasons, including but not limited to low cost, optical transparency, ease of molding, and elastomeric character. PDMS also has desirable chemical characteristics, including compatibility with both conventional siloxane chemistries and the requirements of cell culture (e.g. low toxicity, gas permeability). In an illustrative soft lithography method, a master mold is prepared to form one or more reservoir chambers and, when present associated ports and/or channels. This master mold may be produced by a micromachining process, a photolithographic process, or by any number of methods known to those with skill in the art. Such methods include, but are not limited to, wet etching, electron-beam vacuum deposition, photolithography, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, reactive ion etching, and/or chemically assisted ion beam milling (Choudhury (1997) The Handbook of Microlithography, Micromachining, and Microfabrication, Soc. Photo-Optical Instru. Engineer.; Bard & Faulkner, Fundamentals of Microfabrication).

Once prepared the master mold is exposed to a pro-polymer, which is then cured to form a patterned replica in PDMS. The replica is removed from the master mold, trimmed, and fluid inlets are added where required. The polymer replica may be optionally be treated with a plasma (e.g. an O₂ plasma) and bonded to a suitable substrate, such as glass. Treatment of PDMS with O₂ plasma generates a surface that seals tightly and irreversibly when brought into conformal contact with a suitable substrate, and has the advantage of generating fluid channel walls that are negatively charged when used in conjunction with aqueous solutions. These fixed charges support electrokinetic pumping that may be used to move fluid through the device. While the above described fabrication of a droplet generating device using PDMS, it should be recognized that numerous other materials can be substituted for or used in conjunction with this polymer. Examples include, but are not limited to, polyolefin plastomers, perfluoropolyethylene, polyurethane, polyimides, and cross-linked phenol/formaldehyde polymer resins.

Transfection Device Operation.

In certain embodiments the methods described herein involve providing “recipient cells” disposed on one side of a porous membrane; providing a cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber on the opposite side of the porous membrane; and applying pressure to the reservoir chamber sufficient to pass the cargo through pores comprising the porous membrane where the cargo passes through cell membranes and into said cells. In certain embodiments the pressurization of the chamber is accompanied by deformation of the porous membrane.

The cargo-containing solution can be introduced into the reservoir chamber by any of a number of convenient methods. For example, in one illustrative, but non-limiting embodiment, the cargo-containing solution is introduced into the reservoir chamber through a port or channel into that chamber (see, e.g., FIG. 2A).

In another illustrative, but non-limiting embodiment, the reservoir chamber is fabricated as part of a continuous channel. The outflow portion of channel can be configured with a valve. The cargo solution is flowed into and through the chamber. When desired, the valve is closed sealing the reservoir channel and the pressure head can be maintained to provide increased pressure, or the chamber can be further pressurized. The valve is particularly useful when a plurality of reservoir channels are configured along one cargo filling channel (see, e.g., FIG. 7B).

In another illustrative, but non-limiting embodiment, the cargo-containing solution is loaded into the reservoir chamber before placing the porous membrane (e.g., bearing cells) on or in the chamber.

In another illustrative, but non-limiting embodiment, the cargo-containing solution is injected into the reservoir chamber through a needle that penetrates a wall of the reservoir chamber. In such an embodiment, a port or channel for introduction of the cargo solution can readily be eliminated.

In another illustrative, but non-limiting embodiment, the cargo-containing solution can be simply be passed through the porous membrane to load the reservoir chamber.

The reservoir chamber can also be pressurized by any of a number of methods. For example, where the porous chamber is in fluid communication with a channel or port, fluid or gas pressure can be applied to that port using a pump or a gravity feed.

In another illustrative embodiment the reservoir chamber can be sealed and pressure applied by simply deforming inward one or more walls of the reservoir chamber, e.g., manually, using a micromanipulator, pressuring a vessel within which the porous chamber is disposed, using an electromechanical actuator, and the like.

In another illustrative embodiment the reservoir chamber can be sealed and pressure applied by injecting either cargo-containing solution or additional solution into the reservoir channel, e.g., using a syringe, syringe pump, or other injection device.

In certain embodiments the pressure is applied transiently. In various embodiments of such instances the pressure is applied for a period of time ranging from about 1 msec, or from about 10 msec, or from about 20 msec, or from about 50 msec, or from about 80 msec, or from about 100 msec, or from about 500 msec, or from about 1 sec, or from about 5 sec, or from about 10 sec up to about 20 sec, or up to about 30 sec, or up to about 40 sec, or up to about 50 sec, or up to about 1 min, or up to about 1.5 min, or up to about 2 min, or up to about 2.5 min, or up to about 5 min or u to about 10 min. in certain embodiments the pressure is applied for a period of time ranging from about 100 msec up to about 1 min.

The cells are applied to the porous matrix using standard methods. Typically, the cells can be cultured on the porous matrix. This can be done in the transfection device, or alternatively, this can be done separately and the porous matrix bearing cells then transferred to a transfection device. In certain embodiments the cells are cultured as an adherent layer. In certain embodiments the cells are cultured to confluence either before or after the transfection.

The foregoing methods of operation are illustrative and non-limiting. Using the teachings provided herein one of skill can routinely optimize the transfection methods and devices to accommodate particular cell and/or cargo types.

Transfection Systems.

In certain embodiments a plurality of transfection devices are coupled into a transfection system. In such embodiments, each transfection device can be configured to load/transfect a different cargo into the cells present in each device. Thus, for example, in certain embodiments, a single system can provide different loading ports/channels for different transfection devices comprising that system (see, e.g., FIG. 7A). Alternatively, each transfection device comprising the system can be loaded with different cargoes using other loading means (e.g., as described herein).

In certain embodiments a single system can provide common loading ports/channels for different transfection devices comprising that system (see, e.g., FIG. 7A). Thus all, or a subset of the transfection devices comprising the system can share a common cargo loading channel/port (see, e.g., FIG. 7B). Different cells can be cultured on the porous membrane comprising each device on a common channel thus facilitating the transfection of different cell types with a common cargo.

In certain embodiments these configurations can be combined in a single system thereby providing subsets of devices that share a common cargo loading channel/port and subsets of devices that have separate cargo loading channels/ports.

It will be appreciated that these configurations are illustrative and non-limiting. Using the teaching provided herein, numerous other configurations will be available to one of skill in the art.

Modular Systems.

In certain embodiments the transfection platforms described herein are provided as a “module” that can readily be integrated with existing equipment. For example, in certain embodiments, the transfect ion substrate is provided in a format that can be added to or that can replace a stage on an existing microscope. In certain embodiments the substrate is formatted to replace and x/y/z stage on an inverted microscope (e.g., a Zeis inverted microscope).

In certain embodiments the transfection substrates are provided as a microfluidic system (e.g., a lab on a chip system) and/or as a module that can be integrated with microfluidic systems.

Deliverable Materials (Cargo).

It is believed possible to deliver essentially any desired material into a cell using the methods and devices described herein. Such materials include, but are not limited to nucleic acids, proteins, organelles, drug delivery particles, probes, labels, and the like. In embodiments, the cargo comprises one or more moieties selected from the group consisting of a natural chromosomes or chromosome fragments, synthetic chromosome, a bacterium, a synthetic particle, an intracellular fungus (e.g., Pneumocystis jirovecii, Histoplasma capsulatum, Cryptococcus neoformans, etc.), an intracellular protozoan (e.g., Apicomplexans (e.g., Plasmodium spp., Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium parvum), Trypanosomatids (e.g., Leishmania spp., Trypanosoma cruzi, etc.), and the like), and an organelle (e.g., a nucleus, a nucleolus, a mitochondrion, a chloroplast, a ribosome, a lysosome, and the like).

In certain embodiments the cargo comprises a nucleus, and/or a chloroplast, and/or a nucleolus, and/or a mitochondrion.

In certain embodiments the cargo comprises a whole chromosome, or a chromosome fragment, or a synthetic chromosome (e.g., a BACs (bacterial artificial chromosome)). It is believed the devices and methods described herein can be used to deliver whole or partial natural or synthetic chromosomes. Similar to BACs, large chromosomes or chromosomal fragments that cannot be transduced into most cell types by previous methods can be transferred into cells by the method described herein, for example, inter alia, to establish models of human trisomy disorders (e.g., Down and Klinefelter syndromes).

In certain embodiments the cargo comprises intracellular pathogens, including but not limited to various bacteria, fungi, and protozoans. The transfection of various inanimate particles is also contemplated. Such particle include, but are not limited to quantum dots, surface-enhanced, Raman scattering (SERS) particles, microbeads, and the like.

It will be recognized that these cargoes are intended to be illustrative and non-limiting. Using the teachings provided herein, numerous other cargoes, especially large cargoes, can be transfected into cells.

Cell Types

It is believed the methods and devices described herein can be used with essentially any cell having a cell membrane. Accordingly, in various embodiments, it is contemplated that essentially any eukaryotic cell can be transfected using the methods and devices described herein. Thus, for example, suitable cells that can be transfected using the methods described herein include, but are not limited to vertebrate cells, fungal cells, and yeast cells. In certain embodiments the cells are mammalian cells, insect cells, or invertebrate cells.

Commonly, the methods described herein will be performed with mammalian cells including both human mammalian cells and non-human mammalian cells (e.g., non-human primates, canines, equines, felines, porcines, bovine, ungulates, largomorphs, and the like).

In certain embodiments, the transfected cells comprise stem cells or committed progenitor cells. In certain embodiments the stem cells include adult stem cells, fetal stem cells, cord blood stem cells, acid-reverted stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs).

In certain embodiments the cells comprise lymphocytes or other differentiated somatic cells.

In certain embodiments the cells comprise cells from a cell line. Suitable cell lines include for example, HeLa, National Cancer Institute's 60 cancer cell lines (NCI60), ESTDAB database, DU145 (prostate cancer), Lncap (prostate cancer), MCF-7 (breast cancer), MDA-MB-438 (breast cancer), PC3 (prostate cancer), T47D (breast cancer), THP-1 (acute myeloid leukemia), U87 (glioblastoma), SHSYSY Human neuroblastoma cells, cloned from a myeloma, Saos-2 cells (bone cancer), and the like.

In certain embodiments suitable cell lines include, but are not limited to cell lines listed in Table 1.

In various embodiments the cells are cultured on the porous membrane (e.g., for 1 hour or longer, or for 2 hours or longer or for 4 hours or longer, or for 6 hours or longer or for 12 hours or longer, or for 1 day or longer, or for 2 days or longer, or for 3 days or longer, or for 4 days or longer, or for 5 days or longer, or for 6 days or longer, or for 1 week or longer, or for 2 weeks or longer.

TABLE 1 Illustrative, but non-limiting cells that can be transfected using the methods described herein. Cell line Organism Origin tissue 293-T Human Kidney (embryonic) 3T3 cells Mouse Embryonic fibroblast 4T1 murine breast 721 Human Melanoma 9L Rat Glioblastoma A2780 Human Ovary A2780ADR Human Ovary A2780cis Human Ovary A172 Human Glioblastoma A20 Murine B lymphoma A253 Human Head and neck carcinoma A431 Human Skin epithelium A-549 Human Lung carcinoma ALC Murine Bone marrow B16 Murine Melanoma B35 Rat Neuroblastoma BCP-1 cells Human PBMC BEAS-2B Human Lung bEnd.3 Mouse Brain/cerebral cortex BHK-21 Hamster Kidney BR 293 Human Breast BxPC3 Human Pancreatic adenocarcinoma C2C12 Mouse Myoblast cell line C3H-10T1/2 Mouse Embryonic mesenchymal cell line C6/36 Asian tiger Larval tissue mosquito C6 Rat Glioma Cal-27 Human Tongue CGR8 Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells CHO Hamster Ovary COR-L23 Human Lung COR-L23/CPR Human Lung COR-L23/5010 Human Lung COR-L23/R23 Human Lung COS-7 Monkey Kidney COV-434 Human Ovary CML T1 Human CML acute phase CMT Dog Mammary gland CT26 Murine Colorectal carcinoma D17 Canine Osteosarcoma DH82 Canine Histiocytosis DU145 Human Androgen insensitive carcinoma DuCaP Human Metastatic prostate cancer E14Tg2a Mouse EL4 Mouse EM2 Human CML blast crisis EM3 Human CML blast crisis EMT6/AR1 Mouse Breast EMT6/AR10.0 Mouse Breast FM3 Human Metastatic lymph node H1299 Human Lung H69 Human Lung HB54 Hybridoma Hybridoma HB55 Hybridoma Hybridoma HCA2 Human Fibroblast HEK-293 Human Kidney (embryonic) HeLa Human Cervical cancer Hepa1c1c7 Mouse Hepatoma High Five cells Insect (moth) Ovary HL-60 Human Myeloblast HMEC Human HT-29 Human Colon epithelium HUVEC Human Umbilical vein endothelium Jurkat Human T cell leukemia J558L cells Mouse Myeloma JY cells Human Lymphoblastoid K562 cells Human Lymphoblastoid Ku812 Human Lymphoblastoid KCL22 Human Lymphoblastoid KG1 Human Lymphoblastoid KYO1 Human Lymphoblastoid LNCap Human Prostatic adenocarcinoma Ma-Mel 1, 2, Human 3 . . . 48 MC-38 Mouse MCF-7 Human Mammary gland MCF-10A Human Mammary gland MDA-MB-231 Human Breast MDA-MB-468 Human Breast MDA-MB-435 Human Breast MDCK II Dog Kidney MDCK II Dog Kidney MG63 Human Bone MOR/0.2R Human Lung MONO-MAC 6 Human WBC MRC5 Human (foetal) Lung MTD-1A Mouse MyEnd Mouse NCI-H69/CPR Human Lung NCI-H69/LX10 Human Lung NCI-H69/LX20 Human Lung NCI-H69/LX4 Human Lung NIH-3T3 Mouse Embryo NALM-1 Peripheral blood NW-145 OPCN/OPCT cell lines Peer Human T cell leukemia PNT-1A/PNT 2 Raji human B lymphoma RBL cells Rat Leukemia RenCa Mouse RIN-5F Mouse Pancreas RMA/RMAS Mouse S2 Insect Late stage (20-24 hours old) embryos Saos-2 cells Human Sf21 Insect (moth) Ovary Sf9 Insect (moth) Ovary SiHa Human Cervical cancer SKBR3 Human SKOV-3 Human T2 Human T-47D Human Mammary gland T84 Human Colorectal carcinoma/ Lung metastasis 293-T Human Kidney (embryonic) 3T3 cells Mouse Embryonic fibroblast 4T1 murine breast 721 Human Melanoma 9L Rat Glioblastoma A2780 Human Ovary A2780ADR Human Ovary A2780cis Human Ovary A172 Human Glioblastoma A20 Murine B lymphoma A253 Human Head and neck carcinoma A431 Human Skin epithelium A-549 Human Lung carcinoma ALC Murine Bone marrow B16 Murine Melanoma B35 Rat Neuroblastoma BCP-1 cells Human PBMC BEAS-2B Human Lung bEnd.3 Mouse Brain/cerebral cortex BHK-21 Hamster Kidney BR 293 Human Breast BxPC3 Human Pancreatic adenocarcinoma C2C12 Mouse Myoblast cell line C3H-10T1/2 Mouse Embryonic mesenchymal cell line C6/36 Asian tiger Larval tissue mosquito C6 Rat Glioma Cal-27 Human Tongue CHO Hamster Ovary COR-L23 Human Lung COR-L23/CPR Human Lung COR-L23/5010 Human Lung COR-L23/R23 Human Lung COS-7 Ape Kidney COV-434 Human Ovary CML T1 Human CML acute phase CMT Dog Mammary gland CT26 Murine Colorectal carcinoma D17 Canine Osteosarcoma DH82 Canine Histiocytosis DU145 Human Androgen insensitive carcinoma DuCaP Human Metastatic prostate cancer EL4 Mouse EM2 Human CML blast crisis EM3 Human CML blast crisis EMT6/AR1 Mouse Breast EMT6/AR10.0 Mouse Breast FM3 Human Metastatic lymph node H1299 Human Lung H69 Human Lung HB54 Hybridoma Hybridoma HB55 Hybridoma Hybridoma HCA2 Human Fibroblast HEK-293 Human Kidney (embryonic) HeLa Human Cervical cancer Hepa1c1c7 Mouse Hepatoma High Five cells Insect (moth) Ovary HL-60 Human Myeloblast HMEC Human HT-29 Human Colon epithelium HUVEC Human Umbilical vein endothelium Jurkat Human T cell leukemia J558L cells Mouse Myeloma JY cells Human Lymphoblastoid K562 cells Human Lymphoblastoid Ku812 Human Lymphoblastoid KCL22 Human Lymphoblastoid KG1 Human Lymphoblastoid KYO1 Human Lymphoblastoid LNCap Human Prostatic adenocarcinoma Ma-Mel 1, 2, Human 3 . . . 48 MC-38 Mouse MCF-7 Human Mammary gland MCF-10A Human Mammary gland MDA-MB-231 Human Breast MDA-MB-468 Human Breast MDA-MB-435 Human Breast MDCK II Dog Kidney MDCK II Dog Kidney MG63 Human Bone MOR/0.2R Human Lung MONO-MAC 6 Human WBC MRC5 Human (foetal) Lung MTD-1A Mouse MyEnd Mouse NCI-H69/CPR Human Lung NCI-H69/LX10 Human Lung NCI-H69/LX20 Human Lung NCI-H69/LX4 Human Lung NIH-3T3 Mouse Embryo NALM-1 Peripheral blood NW-145 OPCN/OPCT cell lines Peer Human T cell leukemia PNT-1A/PNT 2 PTK2 Rat Kangaroo kidney Raji human B lymphoma RBL cells Rat Leukaemia RenCa Mouse RIN-5F Mouse Pancreas RMA/RMAS Mouse Saos-2 cells Human Sf21 Insect (moth) Ovary Sf9 Insect (moth) Ovary SiHa Human Cervical cancer SKBR3 Human SKOV-3 Human T2 Human T-47D Human Mammary gland T84 Human Colorectal carcinoma/ Lung metastasis THP1 cell line Human Monocyte U373 Human Glioblastoma-astrocytoma U87 Human Glioblastoma-astrocytoma U937 Human Leukemic monocytic lymphoma VCaP Human Metastatic prostate cancer Vero cells African green Kidney epithelium monkey WM39 Human Skin WT-49 Human Lymphoblastoid X63 Mouse Melanoma YAC-1 Mouse Lymphoma YAR Human B cell

It will be appreciated that the foregoing cell types are intended to be illustrative and non-limiting. It will be recognized that numerous other eukaryotic cell types can readily be used in the methods and devices described herein.

Kits.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are offered to illustrate, but not to limit the claimed invention.

Example 1 Delivery of Large Cargoes into Cells on a Porous Substrate

We demonstrated delivery of isolated functional mitochondria into mtDNA depleted rho(0) cells and obtained transformed rho(0) cell lines containing the donor cell mitochondrial genome. The frequency of obtaining a stably transformed transmitochondrial cell line is ˜10⁻⁴, corresponding to dozens of colonies from each delivery experiment-practically, transmitochondrial cell lines will be obtained every time. The delivery process is depicted in FIG. 1. Recipient cells were cultured on a 10 μm thick polymer membrane with through-membrane pores (1 μm diameter pores at 1.6×10⁶ pores/cm² or 3 μm pores at 8×10⁵ pores/cm²). Mitochondria from donor cells were isolated and the mitochondria suspension (protein concentration 10 mg/mL) was loaded into the reservoir chamber on the opposite side of the polymer membrane. In particular embodiments, the method was tested using polyester, polycarbonate, and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) membranes. The reservoir chamber has a capacity of 100 μL. Transient pressure is applied to the bottom reservoir chamber to pump the mitochondria suspension through the membrane pores towards the recipient cells. The polymer membrane was deformed slightly due to the pressure driven flow and mitochondria and mitochondria aggregates were observed inside the recipient cells and membrane pores after delivery (FIG. 3).

Cells were harvested 24 hours after delivery and cultured in restrictive medium to select for successful transformants containing delivered mitochondria (FIG. 4). Direct sequencing of the mitochondria DNA in the D-loop hypervariable region further confirmed that the transformant colonies contained mtDNA that originated from the delivered donor cell mitochondria (FIG. 5).

To compare mitochondria delivery efficiency, the following experiments were also performed:

-   -   (A) 100 μL of mitochondria suspension was added to the recipient         cells cultured on the porous membrane and co-incubated for 24         hrs; and     -   (B) 100 μL of mitochondria suspension was spun onto the porous         membrane followed by seeding the recipient cells and incubate         for 24 hrs.

Table 2 lists the number of transformant colonies and transformant frequencies from these experiments. No viable colonies were obtained using method (A) and (B).

TABLE 2 Comparison of mitochondria delivery efficiency. Number of transformed Transformant Delivery method colonies frequency Pumping mitochondria suspension 49 3.3 × 10⁻⁴ through porous membrane (A) Co-incubation of donor 0 0 mitochondria with recipient cells (B) Seed recipient cells onto 0 0 donor mitochondria

Using our delivery method, we have generated reproducibly several transmitochondrial cell lines with different mitochondrial genomes. Current results are summarized in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Summary of transmitochondrial lines generated using this delivery method Mitochondria donor cell HEK293 143BTK MDAMB453 MDAMB453 Recipient 143BTK GFP GFP 143BTK cell rho(0) 143BTK 143BTK rho(0) rho(0) rho(0) # of delivered 1 × 10⁵   5 × 10⁵     5 × 10⁵ 1.5 × 10⁵   cells per trial # of transformed 100 10 27 49 colonies Transformant 1 × 10⁻³ 2 × 10⁻⁵ 5.4 × 10⁻⁵ 3.3 × 10⁻⁴ frequency

To demonstrate delivery of bacteria, HeLa cells which are non-phagocytic and do not internalize bacteria efficiently were cultured on the polymer membrane with 3 μm pores. GFP Francisella novicida bacteria suspension at 10¹⁰ bacteria/mL was loaded into the reservoir chamber. Following fluid pumping and bacteria delivery, cells were treated with high concentration of antibiotics (10 mg/mL Gentamicin) for 30 minutes to kill extracellular bacteria. After 9 hours of incubation, 84% of HeLa cells contain intracellular bacteria as seen by GFP bacteria replicating inside the cell cytosol (FIG. 6).

It is understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and scope of the appended claims. All publications, patents, and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of delivering a large cargo into eukaryotic cells, said method comprising: providing said cells disposed on one side of a porous membrane that comprises a plurality of pores; providing said cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber on the opposite side of said porous membrane, wherein said cargo ranges in size from 100 nm to 20 μm; and applying pressure to said reservoir chamber sufficient to pass said cargo through said pores and through the cell membranes of said cells and into said cells to provide cells transfected with said cargo.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said reservoir chamber ranges in volume from about 10 μL up to about 500 μL.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein said porous membrane ranges in thickness from about 5 μm to about 30 μm.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the average or median pore size of said porous membrane ranges from about 100 nm up to about 20 μm.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein said porous membrane comprises about 1×10⁵ pores/cm² up to about 1×10⁷ pores/cm².
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein said porous membrane comprises: about a 1 μm diameter average pore size at about 1.6×10⁶ pores/cm²; or about a 3 μm diameter average pore size at about 8×10⁵ pores/cm².
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein said porous membrane comprises a polymer membrane.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein said porous membrane comprises a material selected from the group consisting of a nylon membrane, a nylon mesh, a filer membrane, a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane, an expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) membrane, a polyester membrane, a polyetheretherketone (PEEK) membrane, an expaneded polyetheretherketone (ePEEK) membrane, aa polyethylene (PE) membrane, a polypropylene (PP) membrane, a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane, an ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA) membrane, a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) membrane, a polyethersulfone (PES) membrane, a polycarbonate membrane, and a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) membrane.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein said applying pressure produces a deflection of said porous membrane.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein said deflection ranges from about 20 μm up to about 500 mm.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein said applying pressure comprises applying a transient pressure.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein: said applying pressure comprises applying pressure through a port into said reservoir chamber; or said applying pressure comprises deflecting a wall of said reservoir chamber when said chamber is filled and closed; or said applying pressure comprises injecting a solution through a wall of said reservoir chamber.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein: said providing said cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber comprises introducing said solution through a port into said reservoir chamber; or said providing said cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber comprises pipetting the cargo solution into the reservoir; or said providing said cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber comprises loading said reservoir chamber before placing said porous membrane on or in said chamber; or said providing said cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber comprises injecting said solution through a needle that penetrates a wall of said reservoir chamber; or said providing said cargo in a solution disposed in a reservoir chamber comprises passing said solution through said porous membrane to load said reservoir chamber.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein said cargo comprises one or moieties selected from the group consisting of a natural chromosome or chromosome fragment, a synthetic chromosome, a bacterium, a synthetic particle, an intracellular fungus, an intracellular protozoan, and an organelle.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein said cells are selected from the group consisting of vertebrate cells, fungal cells, and yeast cells.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein said cells comprise stem cells selected from the group consisting of adult stem cells, embryonic stem cells, cord blood stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein said cells are attached to said porous membrane by one or more of the following: adsorption, adhesion molecules, a centrifugal force, and a gel matrix.
 18. The method of claim 1, wherein said cells are cultured on said porous membrane.
 19. The method of claim 1, wherein said cells are cultured as an adherent layer on said porous membrane.
 20. The method of claim 1, wherein said cells are cultured to confluence on said porous membrane.
 21. The method of claim 1, wherein said porous membrane does not bear a metallic film or metallic nanoparticles and said method does not involve heating a surface of said porous membrane.
 22. The method of claim 1, wherein said cells are selected from the group consisting of mammalian cells, insect cells, and invertebrate cells.
 23. The method of claim 1, wherein said porous membrane ranges in thickness from 5 μm to 20 μm. 